UDC 316.77
Dr. Laura Pana – Politechnic University of Bucharest, Faculty of Automatic Control and Computer Science, Automatic Control and Industrial Informatics Department, Associated Professor, Bucharest, Romania.
E-mail: lapana25@gmail.com
Splaiul Independentei nr. 313, sector 6, Bucuresti, CP 060042,
tel: +(40)21 402 92 69.
Abstract. Some essential but also topical issues of an effective communication process are addressed in the paper, conceived from an action-centered perspective which is rooted in the philosophy of action, which accesses the conceptual framework of cognition and communication management by using the specific theoretical and methodological instruments, and which finishes by proposing an original, interdisciplinary and integrative model of effective communication, supported by recent findings in psychological, sociological and technical sciences, and coined in order to substantiate the present endeavors to diversify the communication ways, levels and techniques, as well as to actually improve the goals, motivations and norms of decision making in the communication environment, and to increase the effectiveness in communication in order to enhance, consequently, an important aspect of social effectiveness as a global result of improving, by communication thinking, reasoning, knowing, modeling and acting, a single field of human effectiveness.
Keywords: effectiveness and efficacy in communication, types and degrees of effectiveness, conceptual model of effectiveness in communication.
Introduction: Effectiveness and Efficacy in Communication
The formula „Effective communication” is preferred here to that of „Efficient communication” because the actual aim of a communication process is not the efficacy of a communicational act, but is to determine humans to accomplish an activity.
A communication process is efficient if the main functions of communication are accomplished by a specific communication process at a high degree of accuracy. If we adopt the action-centered definition of communication, the communication process can be considered accomplished if the projected action itself is successfully put in practice.
Initiated by a professional in communication and accomplished with the means of communication technology, the communication process aims to build a motivational complex for an activity realized by another person or by a group charged with responsibilities in a field of activity.
Then, a communication process is effective if it determine an agent to act and when the result of the realized action or activity is that projected by the initiator or conceived/communicated/realized in collaboration by a team/group/community.
We can note here that even if the progresses in ICT revolutionized communication too, like all other activity fields, and that communication remains what the ancient sophists believed – the technique of techniques, – communication can equally be seen as a part of the chain of an entire action, and then it may be thought, from this action-centered vision, as an interior component of every action.
Efficacy is obtained when an entity or system that can be natural, technical and artificial, accomplishes the task for which it was conceived, projected or produced. In this case the effect may be obtained even without any initiative and effort of the system.
A more complex definition of effectiveness and a more sophisticated relation between effectiveness and efficacy were made in our days. Efficacy was studied in a scientific manner and discovery itself is seen as the most efficient and, in consequence, as a model of efficient activity, but the efficacy of the scientific activity itself is evaluated by the value of market opened by the new knowledge.
Effectiveness is related with the main functions of a system: achieving the established goals; maintenance of its internal structure together with dynamism and flexibility; adapting to the external environment; capacity to evolve or even to develop. It is obvious then that when a system becomes more effective, its capability to realize the set of the essential activities is also growing.
The above mentioned results show that the notion of effectiveness is more complex, because i) effectiveness includes efficacy, ii) effectiveness supposes more behavioral, individual and subjective aspects, iii) effectiveness comes out in the world when systems with information or “informed” systems appears, and grows together with the “informativeness” degree of systems and activities, but it gain its deep expression when information itself takes forms such as intentionality, consciousness and reflexivity.
Efficacy and inefficacy as well as effectiveness in communication may be finally evaluated by considering the efficacy of the whole activity, as well as the efficacy type and degree of the aimed activity. Effectiveness is then a mediated and postponed efficacy, born by a complex of interactions and concluded as a result of all the other components of an individual or group activity. Effective communication is, finally, not only a present performance, but it has a history which is an aspect of human effectiveness and this history has, in its turn, its own beginnings in nature.
1. Effectiveness Degrees: High and Low Efficacy, Pseudo-Efficacy and Counter-Efficacy; Too Much Efficacy?
The effectiveness degree of human action was constantly growing along the history, from the stage of a totally lack of consequence over the environment, to the present level, when the average of human efficacy, in its technical expression, is around of 50%, while nature is working further on at more than 90% efficacy, by some living structures and processes.
This relevant difference is in a spectacular manner “recovered” by humans, who now may have, accidentally or intentionally, a total, 100% destructive influence, as individuals or as civilization, over other individuals or over the surrounding environment.
A comparable efficacy may be attained by humans on the positive half of a success scale, when animated by creative, individual or common, aims: they are able of unique, super-cent performances in science and art, in social and historical achievements, even without specific or superior education, only by simple inspiration, will and co-operation, and even in absence of any technical, instrumental or material facilities.
Between these extremes, human action has, as a rule and by comparison with its own possibilities, a medium or even low efficacy (because its habitual performance is, always, under 50%), but in all particular cases when its objectives are realized in the projected conditions and with the expected results, the obtained effectiveness may be counted as 100% and named a success.
But the very important and decisive social actions and events are those which generate novelty and which open perspectives for evolution and even for development: are changes. Or, change also means new conditions, unknown and incertitude, and then the result and efficacy of human action is, in change-oriented activities, just as at the beginning of history, at risk, at random, and at the good inspiration of individuals or of small groups charged with responsibility.
In all these cases, changes and especially systemic changes may be partially, non-specifically or incorrectly approached or may be missed, because they cannot be realized by wrong-conceived, delayed or half-accomplished reforms. The final effect may be pseudo-efficacy, un-effectiveness or even counter-effectiveness.
Beside such specific causes of crises, some general causes are without interruption active, and among these general causes we can name the low, or by contrary, the too high effectiveness of the action. As examples for the last situation may be used those from banking, auction or selling, as well as those from high-tech activities, that are super-efficient (maybe better said, super-profitable), but often with potentially grave, risky or even menacing effects.
Some aspects of the effectiveness problem such as those related to personal and interpersonal efficacy or group and organizational effectiveness were already studied [14]. Less intensely debated, even if early introduced, are subject matters such as social and human effectiveness.
2. Conditions and Factors of Efficient Communication
We asserted that a communication act is efficient if the functions of communication are accurately accomplished in the framework of a concrete communication process. As main functions of communication we are assuming cognition and understanding; explanation and anticipation; self-expression and self-understanding; social cognition and influence; development of relevant relations in group, organization and society; socialization; coordination in action and interaction processes; persuasion; personal or social influence for task accomplishing by common efforts and cooperation.
If we are able to ensure consistency in conceiving communication as action, the best communication attitude is to act; then, to do something or to do what we say, simultaneously or when we promised, are the most efficient communication ways and the best communication strategies that can be chosen.
Communication itself can and must be then analyzed as an action or as a succession of acts, like any other social action. In order to improve a communication process, a study of the structure of social action can be benefic and useful.
A few important features of the communication process and its efficacy are also derived from the fact that the main conditions of social actions are done by other actions and, finally, by the system of actions in which a communication act or action takes place.
The efficiency degree of a communication is dependent on individual and social conditions and factors and these factors may be correctly understood and influenced only if together studied, because the behavior of every person, seen as a personality, is determined by concrete situations, events and historical processes.
As another important efficiency condition of the communication activity and process the permanent and attentive application of an obligatory set of general principles of communication can be outlined. If a communication episode has been proved as inefficient, a way to fix and to restart the process is to check and to re-apply the list of these principles.
3. Linguistic Competence and Cognitive Competence as Main Factors of Efficient Communication
Language understanding and using is the basic significance of the linguistic competence, that also means the ability to adapt a discourse to the context, that may be done by the specific of activity (scientific, artistic, political, technical etc.), by the features of the public or by occasion and by the social, cultural and historical conditions.
An effective communication process implies, from this point of view:
– a comprehensible expression;
– cognitive statements using;
– correct (social) relations establishing;
– speaker’s (professional and/or social) experience emphasizing.
The results of a study in rhetoric which had as object an effectiveness analysis made on a series of public discourses tenured by outstanding historical personalities in different stages of their carrier [20] are eloquent in this matter. The general overview shoved that their discourses were short, pertinent, eloquent and mobilizing in the ascendant period and at the top of carrier, and long, pedant, confusing or hesitative and wearisome in the decreasing phase or at the finish of public activity.
The same inquiry revealed that the medium length of an efficient message transmitted in public context is recommended to have about 15 words.
A second essential request is related to the adequate connection between the objective content of message and the subjective beliefs of speaker, who must be first himself strongly convinced about the transmitted message. A real correspondence is then necessary between the mental and behavioral states of a partner, manager or leader if he wants to be trusted and followed. Later we will insist on the crucial importance of other, inner or cultivated, nonverbal and corporal messages that can complete the linguistic behavior.
Important properties of the transmitted message regard its content itself, mainly its cognitive content:
– the used terms must be short, simple, even old-fashioned, and poly-semantic, in order to may be decoded, understood and assimilated by different and as more as possible categories of public;
– preferable is to be used concepts with a positive, humanist and universalist signification such as equality, equity, independence, justice, freedom, property etc.
Other requirements are related with the subjective or psychological content of message, as well as to its structural characteristics, which may be not only formal, but informal too – these informal being intimately intricate with those subjective.
Such mixed, both stable and solid, evanescent and subliminal, but equally indispensable and offering conditions of efficacy in communication were established or finished by authors who may be picked from the antiquity to our times, such as Aristotle (Organon, III), G. Bruno (De imaginum, signorum et idearum compositione and also Artificium perorandi, reprinted in 2007 with the title: L’arte di comunicare: Artificium perorandi) and J. Attali (Le parole et l’outil), A. V. Cicourel (Cognitive sociology: Language and meaning in social interaction), M. Olson (Logique de l’action collective), V. Tumanov (Pravo i ideologhiia), I. A. Serkovin (Socialnaia psihologhiia i propaganda), O. Reboul (Le slogan), or J. Habermas (Cognition and communication) and may be selectively synthesized in the following few words:
– the communicated messages has to be
(c.a.) open: it has to stay at the basis of individual mental constructions by which the participants at a public manifestation are continuing and finishing the attended discourse in accord with their own interests.
(c.b.) inclusive and involving:
– to address well targeted and circumscribed primary or secondary social groups and to enhance group and social identity of participants;
– to be elaborated by a recognized linguistic code and to psychologically integrate people in some aspirational groups, not only into their home group, in order to initiate other/new social structures;
– to create a better, maybe an ideal, version of the social imagery characteristic for these groups;
– to motivate individuals and groups to act in conformity with the requirements of these social representations or visions.
(c.c.) ready to be generalized, in order to gather more interest groups around the same ideas and projects.
Another conditions of a correct and then of an efficient communication process are pending on linguistic abilities of coding and de-coding messages.
We also can add the ability to use the results of a communication process.
If we see communication as action, it is here the place to present in a more detailed way the variety of aspects that constitutes the very situation of action that includes:
– conditions of action,
– means of action and
– norms that guide the different kinds of action.
In the ppt. format of our paper we represented the more specific schema of the internal structure of the communication action itself, in which we also emphasized the role of ideas and values; we may remind here even the main argument of Plato used in order to demonstrate the real status of ideas: they exist because they act.
The crucial importance of personal qualities in communication may also be pointed out between other conditions of an effective communication, as well as that of technical means used, mainly the role of information technology, besides the increasing weight of human (linguistic, psychological and psycho-sociological) techniques of communication.
4. The Role of Decision in Communication as Action
In our days, decision can be easier by the standardization of its different phases, as by new, especially information technologies using. Decision itself may be defined in terms of information and action.
From the first, informational perspective, decision may be defined as transformation of the recent, pertinent and useful information in an effective option at the level of action.
According with the terminology and requirements of the theory of action, decision may be seen not only as a distinct and more and more important part of an activity, but also as a kind of action, by which the action situation is studied and evaluated, and a strategy of action is elaborated, communicated and motivated.
An efficient communicator (reporter, mediator, advisor, manager, chairperson, and even a teacher or scientist who disseminates the results of a research activity) has to take and to use the decision power during the communication process, has to be the master of the situation and to lead the communication process.
A very important link in the chain of action is the set of decision operations, which are structuring an entire succession of decisional acts. Decision itself may be seen, more, as a distinct activity, which includes a set of decisional operations as well as a succession of stages.
Some complex decision stages may be analyzed as a sum of several necessary internal steps and then as very autonomous decisions. A few stages may be standardized and even automatically made by knowledge-supported IT, or may be assisted by robotic or/and intelligent agents which may be useful in virtual work environments, like webbots and knowbots.
The decision process is the same, in general lines, in various decision fields, but has a specific in communication. It has to be instantaneous, inspired and initiatives generating.
Effective communication needs personal qualities such as dynamic features that imply temperament and even the superior nervous system, and also creative aptitudes, as well as various intelligence types, and among them, practical intelligence and especially emotional intelligence.
Communication may become and remain a constant and important constituent of a complex decision process and more, it may become a new and even crucial problem of decision processes and of leaders. A relevant and open, both theoretical and applicative problem here remain that of the Logic of heuristic decision making, that can help to grow the weight of automatic decision in complex systems.
The role of evaluation in action is strongly emphasized, as well as the fact that evaluation processes take place, and are important in many phases of any type of action, and thus in communication processes too. The final evaluation is the most important, because depending on its result, an action may be considered as finished or is continued, eventually even restarted a) with another means; b) in changed conditions; c) with new objectives if both means and conditions are inadequate. From this, evaluating perspective, the action chain can be more clearly seen as a cybernetic connection.
If the communication process itself is analyzed from an action and evaluation-centered perspective, as a succession of phases that may be: needs, motivations, aims, means, decision procedures, operations and techniques, and if some evaluation norms and rules are applied in all these stages of action, the same number of opportunities of optimization of the entire communication process appear and can be used in order to maximize its efficacy.
5. Types of Effectiveness in Communication
5.1. Personal Cognitive and Communicative Effectiveness
A well substantiated, cognition-based and self-confidence characterized message is the best vehicle of effective communication. A series of other variables, such as psychological orientation to achievement, goal’s presence and organization culture, as well as the feedback, are another efficiency factors in personal communication effectiveness. A few connected subject matters are treated in our Master course on Communication Management and Cognitive Psychology.
Some dedicated studies demonstrate a strong connection between personal or group motivation and decision, as a factor of communication effectiveness. This connection is mediated by beliefs, which help us to get free of indecision, sometimes described as a “destiny disease”.
If we continue to see communication as an action and more, as a complex activity or even a complex of activities, we may outline that a strong motivation sustains an easier decision process, when a weak motivation makes decision harder.
Decision, in its turn, empowers motivation when the lack of decision diminishes motivation. It is also established that negative beliefs are decreasing motivation, when those positive strengthen them.
In the same time the absence of decision grows the negative motivation, when decision making encourages inhibition of beliefs. Strong belief in success facilitates and strengthens decision taking and, finally, an effective communication process.
In individualism characterized organizational cultures employees will obtain higher performance if they will work individually, while in collectivism oriented cultures people will better perform in their own working team. We can here add that a number of important and successful organizations already practice today the so named 360° feedback.
5.2. Self-Effectiveness and Communicational Effectiveness
Self-efficacy in communication was also studied, taking as starting point the concept of self-efficacy earlier elaborated [3], a concept which allows us to observe personal growth and belief in one’s abilities and suggests individual and social procedures to empower people with communication skills; it also may help to examine people’s belief in their capabilities to manage foreseeable situations.
The concept of self-efficacy has become a conceptual framework with many real life applications, such as health, education, and immigration, and was taken as theoretical basis for the methodological aim to develop and validate a scale able to measure the subjects perception of their everyday, professional or even cultural communication self-efficacy.
This conceptual framework was applied in cultural and intercultural studies by research teams which explore communication effectiveness in intercultural situations [19]. They believe, and this is also an adequate example for our activity too, that once individuals have experienced a sojourn, their communication behaviors are measurably affected, both in terms of confidence to communicate in their home countries in a variety of challenging situations and confidence to communicate in future sojourns. This study makes more: it is an endeavor to create a tool for researchers to measure self-efficacy in communication in various cultural contexts.
Within other personal effectiveness-related issues the interaction between certain factors of success was studied, as in the chapter on Cognition Competence and Communication Performance of our Communication Management university course.
Recent research results envisage that effectiveness is in a positive way influenced by self-effectiveness measurement, and specific self-effectiveness scales were coined for various activity fields.
5.3. Interpersonal Effectiveness and Performance in Communication Context
This kind of effectiveness was studied and synthesized on the basis of the Model of Social Competences, elaborated within the framework of the Psychology of Interpersonal Behavior, that offers a deep understanding of psychological processes that contributes to an adequate social behavior, such as:
– assertiveness, seen as the capability to persuade or even to lead somebody;
– supporting attitude;
– intense nonverbal communication;
– verbal communication as the main vehicle of social communication;
– empathy, attention and cooperation in hard situations understanding and solving;
– cognition of the very nature of social problems, correct interpretation and application of norms and rules;
– efficient self-presentation, that influences other’s perception about us;
– capacity to admit diversity and to accept change, as well as, if necessary, even a capability to initiate and to manage changes.
An application of these basic requirements of interpersonal communication for the new, technical, artificial and often virtual environment of communication are proposed in our paper on Communication and inter-personalization in virtual work groups constituted on the web [14], where the deep changes, occured and still needed, in the body of the means and conditions of the knowledge work and communication inter-action are explored from a both psycological and technical, interdisciplinary perspective.
As a specific issue of effectiveness in interpersonal communication, the conditions and features of effective listening may be envisaged. Effective listening is an active listening, and in opposition with the characteristics of passive hearing, which is a favoring factor of inefficacy, active listening includes questioning, equivalent ideas searching, new topics finding, less evaluative and error tolerating option, provoking but also feed-back giving and even enthusiastic attitude, resuming but also anticipating, all these facilitating a successful interpersonal communication.
Interpersonal effectiveness is obtained not only by a rational management of personal and social skills and competences, but also by a management of the dynamics of social relations and conducts. These latter, in their turn, are evolving as consequences of intra- and inter-personal relations, and then by human and social changes.
5.4. Team and Organization Effectiveness in Communication
Team and group effectiveness in communication are important mainly as aspects of group working and group creativity, and they were first studied as factors of group effectiveness.
As main factors of an effective team communication, aspects such as cohesiveness of the group (mental and social), homogeneity of motivations, high expectations about the results of work, low level of work related anxiety, high psychological support for members and a correct evaluation of results are important.
In its turn, an effective communication has a benefic influence on the status and role of the group, because it is keeping the involvement in the group, strengthens the influence of the group over the members, increases participation and loyalty, ensures a low intensity level of tensions, as well as group satisfaction and high self-evaluation.
As the proximal environment of the team, organization is influenced and has its own effects over the effectiveness of team communication. An inventory and a description of the favoring or, by contrary, disturbing conditions of organizational effectiveness conditions is here impossible, as well as a study of some situational constraints that can become causes of efficacy or inefficacy in the field.
Within the favoring conditions of organizational effectiveness, three groups of aspects are considered relevant: 1. Structural and functional issues of organization; 2. Professional (cognitive and practical) aspects; 3. Achievement and future oriented personal and group behavior.
We will illustrate here these three aspects from a single perspective, that psychological, and we will consider as relevant, from this perspective, some characteristics of organizp style=”text-align: justify;”nbsp;ation and staff which must be present or may be changed, such as:
– professional position coordinated with professional competence and performance;
– specific mental states and practical organization;
– professional and personal achievements within organization. These aspects will be described by a number of characteristics, specific for a successful organization as for a realized person.
The effectiveness level of organizational communication may increase if
aa) professional positions in organization are clear, but flexible and dynamic; a certain autonomy within organization is permeated; originality, in its various manifestations, figures as a privileged value, feedback is a current practice; a strong and manifold meaning of change is shared within the organization;
bb) the mental state of members and leaders include the same practical understanding; people is ready to assume specific responsibilities for achieving the common objective; the staff is characterized by a high consciousness about the added value and excellence of results;
cc) competence and performance are symmetrical at the post; a deep correctness characterizes both the attribution and evaluation of charges in organization; personal development accompanies professional performances; professional and personal satisfactions are balanced; consciousness about assignments and results is continued by forward looking.
A more complex, integrative model of effectiveness in communication may be (re)presented and discussed along with the presentation as with the occasion of the answers for the received questions. Such a model has the following characteristics:
– conserves, extends and integrates the above made descriptions of communication effectiveness types and degrees, combines the internal and external resources of communication management;
– selects and represents the distinctive features of the analyzed effectiveness types (self-efficacy, personal, interpersonal, team and social efficacy);
– shows the successive integration of the studied effectiveness types in a more and more complex whole in which they function as premises and then as conditions for the next ones;
– outlines the interdependence between all the presented communicational effectiveness types.
Such a model may describe but equally inspire professional communication efficacy increasing by using psychological, psychosocial, organizational, socio-technical and prospective visions, methods and techniques.
6. Communication Effectiveness and Culture
Another effectiveness related subject matters, such as measurement and valuation of effectiveness in cognitive competence and communication performance or efficacy measuring criteria and criteria systems are addressed mainly by the emergent field of communication management, where effectiveness is studied not only in terms of objectives achieving with reasonable resources, but also in terms of outcomes as new products and services, as value-adding activities or as excellence in learning and education by information technology supported cognition and communication.
Cultural models of communication and an application of the concept of communicability, with some specific difficulties such as certain gaps which may appear between official attempts to integrate the metapragmatics of mediatization and the pragmatic features of news coverage were recently studied [5]. The complexity of communication in news-centered and highly virtualized culture is illustrated by some analytical problems raised by the new ways in which semiotic mediation and commodification intersect in mediatization.
Cross-cultural communication online is another, but maybe the first time studied question in a book which regards ethical problems of communication, from those of traditional journalistic ethics to Digital Media Ethics [8, pp. 52 – 53, 119 – 125]. Ethical theories from multiple cultures are introduced but, more important, the ethical issues of digital media are discussed from a global perspective.
The present, integrative and interdisciplinary, perspective on communication is not comprehensive enough, if not includes also a special inquiry on the culture of communication, that exceeds and integrates the complex information and cognition activities, flows, centers and nets [15] and generates new values, relations and organization ways, as well as a new community: the communication community.
In this context, we can also speak about cultural effectiveness, gained inclusively by effectiveness in communication, which is based, in its turn, among others, on a new thinking way, the communicational thinking, that is also especially analyzed [12].
The variety of intellectual activities, techniques and technologies supported by ICT but also a series of other activities supported and assisted by the same technology are generating a new cultural environment and even a new culture. Our new culture itself is permanently modified by emerging, re-structuring and re-designing technical, economic, political and spiritual activities. Some new cultural fields are appearing (as the computer culture or the network culture).
More, the new technological infrastructure gives rise to new and co-generative and co-evolving interactions between the new economics and the new culture and thus the so-named economy of culture, based on a production of cultural goods and on a market of cultural products is born [24], by a complex process in which the cultural institutions are keeping their specific weight but are working with instruments of informatics that enable them to have an efficacy degree for now obtained only by industrial and service enterprises.
In this context, both management techniques and multimedia content interfacing techniques are used, as showed by the same author, in order to develop the digital content industries in a sustainable knowledge society, resorting inclusively to the use of networks and projects such as those general like CULTIVATE and CELIP or as those specialized for reading, as TEL and for theater, as HAMLET. Communication models of technologically mediated intellectual practices are proposed [22] starting from empirical research papers which uses methods such as communicative event chains, a method that may be considered as re-generalized by Spinuzzi, in a research project entitled Developing communicative event models (CEMs), but may also lead empirical inquiries in applied linguistics [13] in which language itself is seen as a ”constellation of communicative events” connected to each other within a culture.
Cognition is mediated, supported and enhanced today by communication, and communication generates, by the community of communication, a new culture: the communication culture. But we have to decide if it is only a part of the large culture and (in this neutral sense), a sub-culture or if it tends to become a half- or even a pseudo-culture (in an evaluative sense). Has it to pass even by a stage of a counter-culture, in order to recover itself as a new and valuable way to answer new but real human needs? The cultural community is now waiting for an actual communication community.
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Ссылка на статью:
Pana L. Effective Communication // Философия и гуманитарные науки в информационном обществе. – 2013. – № 2. – С. 69–81. URL: http://fikio.ru/?p=697.
© Dr. Laura Pana, 2013